Between two languages: How the mother tongue shapes English

“Teacher, I didn’t do anything that bad to him!” This is typically how a child might respond when accused of doing something he or she claims not to have done. Among Malaysians, however, it is common to hear this phrase instead, “Teacher, I don’t do him until like that one!” which is a direct translation of the Malay sentence, “Cikgu, saya tak buat dia sampai macam tu sekali.” Although unusual in standard English, the meaning is immediately understood within the local context.

In multilingual societies such as Malaysia, the use of Malaysian English is part of everyday communication. This linguistic diversity reflects the country’s rich cultural and language background. At the same time, it also demonstrates what linguists refer to as first language interference; the influence of a speaker’s native language (L1) on the use of a second language (L2).

Understanding how this interference occurs is especially important in academic settings, where clarity, precision, and appropriateness of language are highly valued. Greater awareness of these influences can help educators correct students more constructively while guiding them to recognise that different situations require different varieties and levels of English use.

Phonological interference

One of the most noticeable forms of language interference is phonological interference, or pronunciation. Many Malaysians unconsciously apply the sounds, rhythm, or intonation of languages like Bahasa Melayu, Mandarin, or Tamil when speaking English. For example, words like “three” may be pronounced as “tree,” or “that” as “dat,” because certain sounds like /θ/ (voiceless dental fricative) do not exist in some local languages. Similarly, English stress patterns may be flattened, making speech sound less natural to international listeners or affecting meaning. This can occur when pronouncing the word “record“. When it is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable (REcord), it functions as a noun meaning stored information. However, when it is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable (reCORD), it functions as a verb meaning to keep or store information for future reference.

Grammatical interference

Another common issue is grammatical interference, particularly in sentence structure. In this context, speakers may directly transfer the syntax of their first language into English. A typical Malaysian English example is “This book very interesting” or “I eat already”; omitting the verb “is” in the former and neglecting the structure “have already eaten” in the latter. These reflect Bahasa Melayu structures “Buku ini sangat menarik” and “Saya sudah makan” respectively. While such sentences are widely understood locally, they do not meet standard English grammar rules expected in formal writing. This depicts that each language possesses distinct grammatical rules that must be followed to ensure smooth communication, especially in professional and academic contexts where precision matters.

Lexical interference

Furthermore, some expressions or words are translated too literally and this is called lexical interference. Malaysians might say “open the light” instead of “turn on the light,” mirroring the Malay phrase “buka lampu.” There are also cases of ‘false friends’ where words seem similar across languages but differ in meaning. For instance, the word “air” is present in both English and Malay language. Nevertheless, it means ‘an invisible mixture of gases’ in the former and ‘water’ in the latter; with slight differences in pronunciation too. Other examples of Malay-English ‘false friends’are; ‘liar’ and ‘jam’. In Malay, the first describes ‘something wild or untamed, like a wild animal’ (binatang liar), not ‘a person who tells lies’; whereas the second refers to ‘a clock, watch or hour’ instead of ‘traffic congestion or fruit spread’. Although these differences may seem minor, they can easily cause confusion and hinder effective communication in English.

Orthographic interference

Spelling can also be affected through orthographic interference. The Malay writing system is highly phonemic as words are spelled exactly how they sound. On the contrary, English orthography is deep and irregular, with various inconsistencies between spelling and pronunciation. Consequently, learners might need time to internalize English spelling conventions and often transfer spelling patterns from their first language during the early stages of learning. For example, Malay has a relatively simple and consistent five-vowel system (a, e, i, o, u), whereas English has a much more complex vowel system that includes vowel digraphs (e.g., bread and chief) and diphthongs (e.g., coin and out). Therefore, it is not surprising that beginner learners spell the English word ‘team’ as ‘tim’ or ‘boat’ as ‘bot’ because they apply the phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence of Malay to English, even though the orthographic systems of the two languages differ significantly.

Various factors influence the extent of first language interference, one of which is subconscious transfer. Since our mother tongue is deeply embedded in our linguistic system, it can be difficult to simply “switch it off” when using another language, particularly when exposure to that language is limited. As a result, learners often rely on the structures of their first language, especially when their English proficiency is still developing or during spontaneous communication.

Despite these challenges, it is important to distinguish between formal and informal language use. Professional and academic settings require standard, grammatically accurate English to ensure clarity and effective communication. Reports, presentations, and academic essays, for example, demand a level of precision that everyday conversations do not. However, this does not mean that localized varieties of English should be dismissed altogether. Informal interactions among family members and close friends serve important social and cultural functions. Expressions such as “Can or not?” and “Eat already?”, although they do not conform to standard English conventions, effectively reinforce a sense of collective identity and cultural belonging.

Ultimately, first language interference should not be viewed as a flaw but as a natural part of the language learning process. The key lies in recognizing when standard English is appropriate and when informal, localized expressions are more suitable. By developing this awareness, Malaysians can communicate competently across a wide range of contexts while maintaining both international intelligibility and their unique linguistic identity.